sábado, 11 de junho de 2011

A Literatura no Egito Antigo: Uma Antologia do Tempo dos Faraós


Professor: Antonio Brancaglion Jr – Egiptólogo - Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro – UFRJ

 
Dias: segundas-feiras das 18h00 às 20h00
Datas: 15, 22, 29 de agosto e 05 de setembro 
Local: Fundação Ema Klabin - Rua Portugal 43, Jardim Europa
Valor: R$ 140 na inscrição + uma parcela de R$ 140,00
Contato(11) 2307-0767
               (11) 2339-0767
               e-mail: contato@projetocultura.com.br


EMENTA:
Se formos buscar a 1ª civilização que utilizou a escrita além do emprego funcional - científica ou técnica - isto é, não-utilitária, podemos afirmar que foi no Egito onde surgiu a literatura mais antiga conhecida.
Embora a mais antiga, a literatura egípcia, é também uma das menos conhecidas. Somente no final do século XIX, com o completo domínio sobre a tradução dos hieróglifos, os egiptólogos voltaram-se para a tradução, estudo e publicação dos textos literários.
A vida literária dependia diretamente das escolas, que funcionavam como arquivos, bibliotecas e onde as cópias eram a base do aprendizado dos escribas. A literatura não era uma fonte de diversão, mas um exercício de leitura e caligrafia. Fonte de ensinamentos éticos, morais, históricos e religiosos.
Este curso pretende expor de maneira objetiva as principais formas literárias surgidas no segundo milênio antes de Cristo e que lançam uma nova luz e uma maneira diferenciada sobre a vida dos antigos egípcios.

PROGRAMA:
1. Os Hieróglifos e os Escribas
2. Ensinamentos, Instruções e Máximas: A Literatura Didática
3. Romances e Contos: A Literatura Fantástica
4. A Poesia Lírica e Dramática


domingo, 5 de junho de 2011

O Conto do Náufrago - Papiro Ermitage 1115




    Dentre os gêneros literários do Egito Antigo aquele que se destaca por ser um dos mais conhecidos é a prosa. 
  Apresentamos aqui O Conto do Náufrago - Papiro Ermitage 1115 (Hieroglifo, Transliteração e Tradução) publicado na Revista Tiraz III (Revista de Estudos Árabes e das Culturas do Oriente Médio - DLO - FFLCH - USP), 2006.




sábado, 14 de maio de 2011

Dissertações de Mestrado - Masters Dissertations



Seguem abaixo as dissertações de minhas ex-orientandas de Mestrado em Arqueologia pelo Museu Nacional – UFRJ, podendo ser baixadas integralmente.

Here are the dissertations of my former Masters advisees in Archaeology at Museu Nacional - UFRJ, which can be downloaded in full.

Cintia Alfieri Gama - Bolsista CNPq           
Os Servidores Funerários da Coleção Egípcia do Museu Nacional: catálogo e interpretação  (defendida em 08.09.08)

Regina Coeli Pinheiro da Silva
Análise do painel da cena de oferendas da Sala Alpha – Tumba Real de Amarna (defendida em 14.07.09)

Marina Buffa César - Bolsista CAPES        
O Escaravelho-Coração nas Práticas e Rituais Funerários do Antigo Egito (defendida em 21/07/09)


PROGRAMA DE PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO EM ARQUEOLOGIA
Museu Nacional
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Quinta da Boa Vista, s/nº 

São Cristóvão
20940-040 Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Telefone: 2562 6939
Fax: 2254 4320



sexta-feira, 4 de março de 2011

OS CAMINHOS DA ALMA: Crenças e Práticas Funerárias do Egito Antigo





Antonio Brancaglion Jr
Egiptólogo
Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ


Dias: segundas-feiras das 20h00 às 22h00
Datas: 18, 25 de abril e 2 e 9 de maio
Local: Fundação Ema Klabin - Rua Portugal 43, Jardim Europa
Contato: (11) 2307-0767
               (11) 2339-0767
               e-mail: contato@projetocultura.com.br

EMENTA:
À primeira vista a civilização egípcia parece ter uma fascinação mórbida pela morte. Na verdade suas tumbas, suas múmias e seus rituais são o fruto de uma celebração pela vida e a busca por uma existência eterna.
Para os egípcios antigos a morte era uma jornada, uma transição para uma outra existência onde a vida continuava sob a forma de um espírito.
O objetivo deste curso é mostrar como, ao longo de três mil anos, as crenças e práticas funerárias desenvolveram-se em torno de uma cultura que foi a primeira a estabelecer crenças ainda hoje presentes em nossas religiões, uma idéia da imortalidade e do julgamento da alma e de Campos Elíseos para os bem aventurados.


PROGRAMA

Aula 1. A morte: da dissolução do indivíduo à renovação da vida
Aula 2. Liturgia e literatura funerária
Aula 3. Os dois grandes mistérios: da “Justificação” a “Glorificação” do morto
Aula 4. Deuses e demônios: uma visão do Outro Mundo


Dicionários Hieroglíficos


Champollion considerado como o criador da Egiptologia era um lingüista e orientalista talvez isto expliquem porque os dicionários e léxicos são tão freqüentes e específicos nesta disciplina.
Apresento a seguir uma lista mínima básica de dicionários para a língua egípcia disponíveis na internet.

ERMAN (Adolf), GRAPOW (Hermann), Wörterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache. Die Belegstellen (5 volumes, Leipzig, 1935-1959).

Obra fundamental ainda que antiga e ultrapassada principalmente em suas referências (Belegstellen).
Disponível para consulta na Biblioteca Central do Museu Nacional da UFRJ e em PDF nos “links”:
http://www.egyptology.ru/lang.htm#Woerterbuch
http://www.egyptology.ru/lang.htm#Belegstellen

THESAURUS LINGUAE AEGYPTIAE.
Uma lista ainda incompleta de palavras repertoriadas em dicionários e léxicos já publicados, com referências insatisfatórias e mesmo equivocadas.
Disponível para consulta “on-line” em:

FAULKNER (Raymond O.), A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian (Oxford, 1962)
Obra fundamental embora ultrapassada, sua ultima edição revisada data de 1964. Destacasse por trazer uma bibliografia de referencia para cada palavra, mas somente referencias a publicações em língua inglesa.
Disponível para consulta “on-line” em:
Disponível para consulta nas Bibliotecas:
Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia da USP
PUC-Rio

BUDGE (E.A. Wallis), An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary (2 vol. Londres, 1920)
As publicações de Budge são freqüentemente reeditadas o que o torna um autor muito conhecido e utilizado por leitores iniciantes e desavisados. Todas as suas obras e em particular seus dicionários devem ser lidos com cautela, seus conhecimos da língua egípcia eram insuficientes já na sua época estando hoje em dia completamente ultrapassados devendo ser evitados.
Disponível para consulta na Biblioteca do Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia da USP e em PDF nos links:

DICIONÁRIOS ON-LINE
Estão disponíveis on-line muitos dicionários hieroglíficos, a grande maioria baseados em dicionários já publicados. Não são confiáveis e apresentam em diferentes graus erros de tradução, imprecisões e falta de referências:
O melhor dentre eles talvez seja o Hieroglyphs.net
Bastante interessante é o Aaou disponível em francês e inglês, exclusivo para iPhone, iTouch e iPad foi idealizado para uma consulta rápida durante visitas a museus ou viagens ao Egito:

Indicações Bibliográficas


ARTE
ALDRED, Cyril. Egyptian Art. London: Thames & Hudson (World of Art), 1985.
Embora já um pouco ultrapassada esta obra ainda é bastante útil para os que desejam conhecer os principais aspectos da arte egípcia, principalmente a arquitetura e a escultura.




MALEK, Jaromir. Egypt: 4000 Years of Art. London: Phaidon, 2003 
Obra bastante complete apresentando a arte egípcia de forma cronológica. Bem ilustrada possui um glossário, mapa e uma cronologia bem elaborada.




DICIONÁRIOS
POSENER, George; SAUNERON, Serge; YOYOTTE, Jean. Dictionnaire de la Civilisation Égyptienne. Paris: Fernand Hazan, 1988.
Escrito por três dos maiores egiptologos franceses, um clássico entre os dicionários gerais de egiptologia com verbetes que são verdadeiras análises mais do que simples descrições informativas. Possui indices especificos que dificultam um pouco a localização dos verbetes e infelizmente a maiorias das citações de textos antigos não possuem uma referência precisa.

SHAW, Ian & NICHOLSON, Paul. British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt.London: The Trustees of the British Museum, 1995.
Excelente dicionário geral, bem ilustrado. Sua maior qualidade são as referências bibliográficas para cada verbete o que permite o leitor se aprofundar em suas pesquisas. Possui uma versão mais recente sem alterações substanciais.


SHAW, Ian; NICHOLSON, Paul. The Princeton Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. London: Princeton University Press, 2008.






HIERÓGLIFOS
Para os que querem se aventurar no estudo dos hieróglifos e da língua egípcia encontrarão um grande número de gramáticas muito semelhantes na forma e na metodologia.
Para os que desejam se aprofundar nestes estudos ainda temos as incontornáveis obras clássicas:
GARDINER, Sir Alan. Egyptian Grammar, Oxford: Griffith Institute - Ashmolean Museun, 1994.
LEFEBVRE, Gustave Désiré Louis. Grammaire de l'Égyptien Classique. Le Caire: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 1940.
Obras mais modernas e mais fáceis de serem adquiridas são:
ALLEN, James P. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2ª edição, 2010.
A combinação de uma gramática com lições e exercícios e informações sobre a cultura faraônica por meio de textos literários e monumentais utilizados nas lições. Esta segunda edição é preferível por trazer uma revisão dos exercícios e novos textos.


COLLIER, Mark; MANLEY, Bill. How read Egyptian Hieroglyphs a step-by-step guide to teach yourself. London: British Museum Press, 1998.
A melhor no gênero aprenda sozinho. Uma boa introdução, simples e com exercícios resolvidos, ideal para um primeiro contato com a gramática hieroglífica. Possuí uma lista de sinais e um pequeno vocabulário.


GRANDET, Pierre; MATHIEU, Bernard. Cours d'égyptien Hiéroglyphique Paris: Éditions Khéops, 2003.
Esta moderna gramática dividida em 56 lições com 2 mil exemplos possui um vocabulário e uma série de exercícios para cada uma das lições.
Possui também um léxico egípcio-francês e francês-egípcio além da lista completa de sinais hieroglíficos.


HOOKER, J. T. Lendo o Passado: do cuneiforme ao alfabeto. A História da Escrita Antiga. São Paulo: Edusp/Melhoramentos, 1996.
Esta obra não é uma gramática ou um manual de tradução, trata-se de uma coletânea de uma série publicada pelo Museu Britânico sobre escritas no mundo antigo, entre elas os hieróglifos egípcios apresentando de forma simples e objetiva o funcionamento da escrita.


HISTÓRIA
GRIMAL, Nicolas. Histoire de L'Égypte Ancienne, Paris, Fayard, 1988 Uma síntese da história egípcia da Pré-história até a Conquista de Alexandre. Possui uma cronologia e uma lista real com os nomes em hieróglifo dos principais faraós e reis.
SHAW, Ian (ed.) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Curiosamente os egiptólogos escrevem pouco sobre a história do Egito Antigo. Este livro é uma exceção, cada capitulo foi escrito por um especialista abrangendo desde culturas pré-históricas até o Período Romano. Possui duas edições diferentes sendo a de bolso menos ilustrada.



RELIGIÃO
SHAFER, Byron E. (ed.). As Religiões no Egito Antigo: deuses, mitos e rituais domésticos. São Paulo, Nova Alexandria, 2002.
Uma visão moderna e bastante clara da religião egípcia e suas variadas formas de manifestação.



Contudo a tradução sofrível faz com que seja preferível a edição original:

SHAFER, Byron E. (ed.). Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice. Cornell University Press, 1991.
TRAUNECKER, Claude. Os Deuses do Egito, Brasília, Editora Universidade de Brasília, 1995.
Este pequeno livro é uma excelente introdução a religião egípcia e seus aspectos mais fundamentais. Uma primorosa tradução do original em Frances infelizmente encontrasse esgotado.



quinta-feira, 3 de março de 2011

The Scientific Study of the Egyptian Mummies



The exact origin of the Egypt Collection is unknown but it is accepted that Nicolau Fiengo brought it from Marseille, France. Fiengo stated it came of Giovanni Battista Belzoni’s missions. According to Belzoni the objects that came to Brazil had been found in his “excavations” in Karnak, the “Realm of Amun”, and in the Teban necropolis. This provenance was confirmed because a great number of the objects from the Emperor Pedro I collection were proved to belong to Teban priests and officers.
That collection has more than five hundred objects, approximately half of them are exposed. There are works of great artistic and archeological value as the beautiful III Intermediate Period and Late Period coffins of priests Hori, Pestjef and Harsiese, besides other objects. Among the most valuable as well as interesting objects under the museuologic and scientific point of view, are the human and animal mummies. Mummies are all the preserved remains of carcasses naturally or artificially preserved against decomposition. Although mummification processes are used by different cultures all over the planet, the word was generally used for the intentionally preserved bodies prepared by the ancient Egyptians.
The study of mummified human bodies gives us an insight to the Ancient Egypt way of life, to their lifestyle, health and funerary practices. This reduces the bias caused by the tentative interpretation of their artistic or written testimonies. The Egyptian word for mummy was sah, that means “eternal image” or “noble image”. The word mummy comes from the Persian through the Arabian word mummia “bitumen” or mum “beeswax” or “pitch”. The Arabians were the first to believe that the preservation of the carcasses was assured by the use of bitumen that explained the black color of the skin. In fact, the bitumen was only occasionally used in the mummification after 1500 BC.
Natural mummification, that is to say non intentional mummification, produced by environmental conditions, is the result of burial in the hot sands of the desert. Those mummies are found in the pre-Dynastic Egypt (c. 4.500 BC). Otherwise, parallel to the sophistication of the architecture of the tombs the Egyptian highest social ranks started to develop artificial mummification processes starting about the Naqada II Period (c. 3400 BC). The real goal of the embalming practice was to create a simulacrum of the real body, thus the mummy could be a treated carcass, parts of it, or just to be similar to it. What was really expected was that once the mummy was embalmed and prepared, it could resist for a long time as a kind of mirror image to the spirit. They believed that the image was necessary to assure eternal life to the spirit in the Land of the Dead.
The process basically involved three stages. The first one was evisceration, when the internal organs were removed, dried and wrapped, before being stored in special canopic vases, or returning to the abdominal cavity. The heart was kept inside the chest, because it was considered the home of the soul, or the “organ of the resurrection”. Then the body was dehydrated with natron that was applied directly to the body, outside and inside. That “divine salt”, mixed of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate, was found in natural deposits in the Wadi Natrun, about 60km west from Cairo. After the body was dry, it was cleaned and prepared with plant resins and oils and carefully wrapped in linen.
Seventy days were necessary to the complete mummification, 40 to dry the body, 30 to prepare it with oils and resins, wrappings and placing the proper amulets. During the process the priests read prays and magic spells while burning incense. Artificial mummification was created exclusively to the use of the highest social ranks in the Egyptian society, and it was practiced until the Christian era.
Besides human mummies, millions of animal mummies of different species were also prepared by the Egyptians that considered them avatars to the gods. Some mummified bodies can be more perfect than the real beings, as mummifying in Egypt was in fact to prepare the body to represent its ideal image. This is very important to understand some tricks and techniques used by the embalmers to keep the appearance of the adult or infant bodies, as well as animals.
The first Egyptologist to use radiographs was W. Flinders Petrie who in 1896 X-rayed the mummies he had discovered in Egypt. But the low power of the radiological devices of his time allowed just the exploration of images of the extremities of the members. During the following years, radiology came to be one of the most important tools in the investigation of the Egyptian mummification. In 1897 Dr. Block did in Wien the first radiography of the complete body of an Egyptian mummy. The first time when a Royal mummy was X-rayed in Cairo, his age was younger than expected by the historical documents.
Studies of the Royal mummies proceeded in 1912, when Elliot Smith published the first complete description of the Royal mummies in the Cairo Museum coming to be the pioneer in the study of the mummification techniques, in spite of the precarious radiological results. In 1913 the chemistry named Marcellin Bertolleti described the first vertebral anomaly, an abnormal fusion of the lumbar vertebrae and the sacrum, in the X-rays of a mummy of the XI dynasty (c. 2061 BC). From this moment on X-raying mummies became very popular, especially between the decades of 1920 and 1930.
In 1931 the pathologist Roy L. Moodie took radiographs of a series of 17 mummies, 7 of children from different periods, including one of the Pre-Dynastic Period, revealing signs of arthrosis, atherosclerosis and dental attrition. The radiographs were of great quality showing the growth lines in two children of the Roman Period. Moodie has also studied mummified animals. In 1942, F. J. Onckheere published a radiologic study complemented by the unwrapping and necropsy of the mummy of Butehamon, the Royal scribe.
In Brazil, the first radiographic images of the Egyptian collection of the National Museum were done in 1960, by Dr. Roberval B. de Menezes. Those images give an idea of the skeletons inside the mummies but many questions remained unsolved. The need to clear the nature and the state of conservation of that collection, as well as to characterize those funerary testimonies of a distant past is an international demand, as this is the major Egyptian collection in Southern Hemisphere. The first try to obtain tomographic images of the same mummy was in 2001. Using a portable tomographic apparatus developed by the Laboratory of Nuclear Instrumentation of COPPE/UFRJ, by Dr. Ricardo Tadeu Lopes and his team, the first images were obtained and developed in digital devices. The images are allowed to check the state of preservation of this mummy.
In 1963 George Harrison X-rayed some mummified remains found in the Royal tomb number 55 in the Valley of the Kings, possibly belonging to the King Akhenaton. A later comparison of the images with the images of the mummy of Tutankhamun showed a huge similarity, confirming they could be first grade relatives.
Peter Hugh Ker Gray X-rayed and published in 1966 the mummies of the National Museum of Antiquities, in Leiden, three of which belong to the same and select group of mummies wrapped in a unique way, similar to the mummy number 158 of the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro. In 1968 the same investigator and Warren Royal Dawson published the catalog of mummies and human remains of the British Museum. In the volume they combined archaeological and radiographic analysis of 133 mummies, among then the one number 6704, similar to the Leiden trio and the one in the National Museum in Brazil. In the same year, George Harrison X-rayed the mummy of Tutankhamun using for the first time a portable device taken into the Tomb, and did the same with one of the fetuses found in that tomb.
In 1980 Aidan Cockburn and his team published the results of a multidisciplinary investigation conducted between 1972 and 1979 in four human mummies, numbered I to IV and named PUM (Pennsylvania University Museum). That project followed a protocol of analysis established by two previous multidisciplinary projects, the DIA I (Detroit Institute of Art) in 1971 and the ROM I (Royal Ontario Museum) in 1974, when the CT scan were successfully used for the first time in the skull of a mummy named Nakht.
The first tomogaphies of Egyptian mummies were in 1977, in Toronto, Canada. The first tridimensional reconstruction with the images of an Egyptian mummy was in 1986, by Peter Lewin, who studied a human head and a cat. In 1982 C. Roubet and Roger Lichtenberg developed a new project to study 17 mummies that were X-rayed directly in the field, during the excavation of the Duch necropolis, at the Kharga oasis, Ptolemaic to Roman period. This investigation followed until 1994 with Françoise Dunand and Roger Lichtenberg. Meanwhile in 1992 the Egyptian Antiquities Organization promoted a radiological study of 59 mummies of the Roman Period at the Ain Labakha necropolis, also at Kharga.
In 1987 Patrice Josset and Jean-Claude Goyon necropsied one mummy of the Guimet Museum of Natural History of Lyon, after a detailed documentation based on radiological and tomographic techniques. That was the first time a complete project of this kind was documented in movies, resulting in the creation of two successful documentaries for the French TV, one of them about necropsies and the other about the analysis of the materials collected during the necropsia, such as wrapping textiles, pollen and insects. In 1990 the first tomography of a mummy inside its coffin was done, mad=king it possible to study it without opening.
In 2001 Salima Ikran, of the American University in Cairo, started the Animal Mummy Project, to study the animals of the Cairo Museum, with a system of “adoption” of animal mummies, so that radiological study was so far sponsored by private donors.
In 2003 the National Museum of the University of Rio de Janeiro, in a partnership with the National Institute of Technology, the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation and the Clinic for Image Diagnosis has started a pioneer project in Latin America: to study the human and animal Egyptian mummies gathering more information about the life conditions and funerary practices in the Ancient Egypt.
When Martin Raven published in 2005 a radiological atlas for the collection of human and animal mummies of the National Museum of Antiquities at Leiden, it was finally possible to start a comparative study between the young of the Roman Period of National Museum of Rio de Janeiro and her German counterparts. At the same year the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt, starting from the tomographic study of the Tutankhamun mummy, provided new information about the physical conditions of the young King and the possible cause of his death. The use of non destructive methods of analysis of mummies also helped to redirect the decisions about necropsies, and the decision to open the mummies is now more based in the state of preservation of the object than in the need for scientific information.
The continuous progress of the non invasive medical techniques with their powerful images allow to eliminate superimpositions and distinguish different materials, helping to visualize throughout those objects and describe them in details. Although those studies are more and more used for human mummies, they are still less used for animal mummies.


Thanks to the use of more sophisticated technologies such as the helical tomographies, a lot of progress was possible. The studies are more conservative and in great number. It is possible to confirm the bodies inside the wrappings, to identify old and modern counterfeits, to check the prosthesis in the real mummified bodies, as well as the different materials included or modifying them, to confirm the identity of the mummified individuals, to distinguish animals and humans, to check the integrity of the mummified packs, to confirm the presence of amulets and other objects, to identify different techniques used to prepare the bodies. The 3D reconstruction and traveling in the inside of the objects, virtually penetrating the cavities and spaces opened inside the bodies and the coffins are now totally possible. The computerized tomography characterizes the real virtual necropsia of those testimonies of the past. Facial reconstruction is also possible with the 3D images and prototypes of the skulls from inside the mummies, as provided for Tutankhamun, in Egypt, and the Beauty from Tebas, in Brazil. The results are much appreciated in the museums and for the general public.
Some of the results of the CT scanning of the mummies in the Museu Nacional are helping to know objects and techniques used for mummification. Layers of higher density along the body’s contour help to define resin applied directly to the first linen wrappings and skin. Resin levels inside the braincase confirm the resting position of the body after the embalming process had finished. Different layers of linen of varying thickness, and linen stuffing inside the thorax and abdominal cavity helped to recover the appearance of a living body, even improving female contours, like in the female young of the Roman period. Linen plugs used to close openings used by the embalmers to empty the cavities of the body, and can also be seen and studied. Subsequent wrappings used for restoring the mummified bodies, as in the child and the head of Bela de Tebas, are interesting discoveries. Different linen bandages can be distinguished in the images of different individuals.


Cartonages inside the bandages or outside the mummy can be seen, as in the case of the child whose lower limbs are involved independently. Long spiral stripes spin around the legs suggesting the remains of former badly preserved bandages. Sticks inside the bodies confirm the use during the Roman Period of this kind of trick to fix the carcasses. In the case of the child, a polygonal cross section, varying from triangular to oblong shaped; the radiological density lower inside and denser at the outer cortex, and other characteristics confirm the stick was made of a papyrus stem (Cyperus papyrus) broken or cut at both ends. In the case of Bela, the stick inside the head in made of a thick and fibrous kind of material, with no visible cortex, with a roughly round cross section, suggestive of a cut piece of palm wood.
The presence of artificial eyes of different kinds is also noticed in the CT scanning. The eyes of the child are thin, dense and almond shaped small objects placed in front of the orbits. In Sha-amun-en-su the artificial eyes are round and dense and are filing completely her orbital cavities. All the mummies had body cavities partially or completely fulfilled, in order to preserve their final appearance for eternity.  


Objects identified as amulets were found only in the mummy of the priest of Amon, who still has her sacred scarab and a small pack of other amulets close to her hands. This evidence proves that her body has been preserved and not violated, as well and her coffin has been closed for centuries, even after it was taken out of her tomb. Other data are waiting to be interpreted in an image databank of more than 6.000 frames, and is still growing.
Virtual images and especially 3D technologies have improved Egyptology that is undoubtedly one of the branches of archaeology that obtained more fruitful results from those modern techniques of investigation.  

















REFERENCES

AUFDERHEIDE, A. C. The scientific study of mummies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
BALOUT, L. La momie de Ramsès II. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations – ERC. 1985.
COCKBURN, A.; COCKBURN, E.; REYMAN, T. A. (Eds.). Mummies, disease & ancient cultures. Cambridge – New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
DAVID, A. R. (Ed.). Manchester Museum Mummy Project: Multidisciplinary research on ancient egyptian mummified remains. Manchester: The Manchester Museum, 1979.
FLEMING, S.; FISHMAN, B.; O’CONNOR, D.; et al. The Egyptian Mummy: Secrets and Science. Philadelphia: Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania, 1980. (Exhibition, University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, Sept. 1980 – Aug. 1981)
HARRIS, J. E. An X-Ray atlas of the royal mummies. Chicago – London: The University of Chicago Press, 1980.
RAVEN, M. J.; WYBREN, K. T. Egyptian Mummies: radiological atlas of the collections in the National Museum of Antiquities at Leiden. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2005.



Text adapted from:

BRANCAGLION JR, Antonio. “O Estudo Científico das Múmias Egípcias/ The Scientific Study of the Egyptian Mummies”. In: WERNER, Heron; LOPES, Jorge (Eds.). Tecnologias 3D - Paleontologia, Arqueologia, Medicina Fetal/3D Technologies – Paleontology, Archeology, Foetal Medicine. Rio de Janeiro: Revinter, 2008.